Biochemistry of the Essential Ultratrace Elements

Biochemistry of the Elements 3

Earl Frieden

Springer Verlag GmbH

Inhaltsangabe1. A Survey of the Essential Biochemical Elements.- 1.1 Essentiality.- 1.1.1 Stimulatory Metals.- 1.1.2 Evolution of the Essential Trace Elements.- 1.2 A Survey of the Biochemistry of the Elements.- 1.2.1 The Nonmetals: Bromine.- 1.2.2 The Metals.- 1.2.3 Pretransition Metals.- 1.2.4 The Alkali Metals; Lithium, Rubidium.- 1.2.5 The Alkaline Earth Metals; Beryllium, Strontium, Barium.- 1.2.6 Remaining Pre-transition Metals.- 1.2.7 The Transition Metals.- 1.2.8 The Post-transition Metals.- 1.2.9 Lanthanides and Actinides.- 1.3 Mechanism of Action of the Essential Ultratrace Elements.- 1.4 Summary.- General References.- Specific References.- 2. The Discovery of the Essential Trace Elements: An Outline of the History of Biological Trace Element Research.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Classification of the Bioelements.- 2.3 The Concept of Essentiality.- 2.4 Trace Element Discoveries from 1925 to 1956.- 2.4.1 Copper.- 2.4.2 Manganese.- 2.4.3 Zinc.- 2.4.4 Cobalt.- 2.4.5 Molybdenum.- 2.5 Discoveries from 1956 to 1978: The Era of Klaus Schwarz.- 2.5.1 Selenium.- 2.5.2 Chromium.- 2.5.3 Tin.- 2.5.4 Vanadium.- 2.5.5 Fluoride.- 2.5.6 Silicon.- 2.5.7 Nickel.- 2.5.8 Lead, Cadmium, and Arsenic.- 2.6 Current Trends and Problems.- References.- 3. Iodine.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Chemistry of Iodine and Iodoamino Acids.- 3.2.1 Properties of Iodine.- 3.2.2 Iodine Isotopes.- 3.2.3 Important Chemical and Biochemical Reactions of Iodine.- 3.2.4 Iodotyrosines and Iodothyronines.- 3.3 Iodine Metabolism.- 3.3.1 Iodine Absorption, Evolution, and Thyroid Hormone Biosynthesis.- 3.3.2 Thyroid Hormones in Blood.- 3.3.3 Thyroid Hormones in Peripheral Tissues.- 3.3.4 Iodine Deficiency.- 3.3.5 Iodine Toxicity.- 3.4 Mechanism of Action of Thyroid Hormones.- 3.4.1 General and Cellular Effects.- 3.4.2 Structure-Activity Relationships.- 3.5 Summary.- References.- 4. Fluorine.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Fluoride in Cells and Tissues.- 4.2.1 Mineralized Tissues.- 4.2.2 Cells and Soft Tissues.- 4.2.3 Extracellular Fluid.- 4.3 Fluoride Deficiency and Function.- 4.3.1 Deficiency.- 4.3.2 Functions of Fluoride.- 4.4 Metabolism and Toxicity of Fluoride.- 4.4.1 Metabolism.- 4.4.2 Toxicity.- 4.5 Summary.- References.- 5. Manganese.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Manganese Concentration in Animal Tissues.- 5.3 Metabolism of Manganese.- 5.3.1 Absorption.- 5.3.2 Transport and Tissue Distribution.- 5.3.3 Excretion.- 5.4 Biochemistry of Manganese.- 5.4.1 Manganese Chemistry.- 5.4.2 Manganese as a Cofactor and in Metalloenzymes.- 5.4.3 Manganese and Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 5.4.4 Manganese and Lipid Metabolism.- 5.4.5 Manganese and Brain Function.- 5.5 Manganese Nutrition.- 5.5.1 Manganese Deficiency.- 5.5.2 Genetic Interactions and Manganese Metabolism.- 5.5.3 Human Requirements.- 5.5.4 Manganese Content of Foods.- 5.6 Manganese Toxicity.- 5.7 Manganese in Relation to Immunocompetence and Cancer.- 5.8 Summary.- References.- 6. Cobalt.- 6.1 Introduction and History.- 6.2 Cobalt and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 6.2.1 Cobalt in Soils.- 6.2.2 Cobalt in Plants.- 6.2.3 Cobalt in Animals.- 6.3 Cobalt Deficiency and Function.- 6.3.1 Cobalt in Animal Nutrition.- 6.3.2 Cobalt in Human Nutrition.- 6.4 Metabolism and Toxicity of Cobalt.- 6.4.1 Effect of Cobalt on Plants.- 6.4.2 Effect of Cobalt on Animals.- 6.4.3 Effect of Cobalt on Microorganisms.- 6.4.4 Toxicity of Cobalt.- 6.5 Conclusion.- References.- 7. Molybdenum.- 7.1 Introduction and History.- 7.2 Molybdenum and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 7.2.1 Molybdenum-Containing Enzymes.- 7.2.2 The Molybdenum Cofactor.- 7.2.3 General Aspects of Molybdenum Biochemistry.- 7.3 Nutritional Aspects of Molybdenum.- 7.3.1 Molybdenum in the Diet.- 7.3.2 Molybdenum Deficiency.- 7.3.3 Molybdenum Toxicity.- 7.4 Conclusion.- 7.5 Summary.- References.- 8. Chromium.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Chromium: Physical and Chemical Properties.- 8.3 Biologically Active Chromium.- 8.4 Absorption and Transport of Chromium.- 8.5 Chromium Occurrence in Blood, Tissues, and H